DNA BLOG - LifeDNA

Best Companies For Methylation Genetic Testing in 2025

Catherine on July 16, 2025

Disclaimer: Genetic information is not a substitute for medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always consult a qualified healthcare provider before making changes to your health routine, especially in response to genetic test results.

Methylation is a fundamental biochemical process that affects everything from detoxification and neurotransmitter balance to DNA repair and cardiovascular health. At the heart of this process are a group of genes responsible for producing the enzymes and cofactors that regulate methylation pathways. Variants in these genes, such as MTHFR, MTRR, COMT, and others, can influence how efficiently your body performs methylation and, in turn, affect your risk for various health conditions.

In 2025, genetic testing for methylation-related genes has become increasingly popular among clinicians and wellness-focused individuals alike. These tests offer insights into how your genetic makeup might affect folate metabolism, homocysteine levels, and your body’s ability to process environmental toxins, among other functions. While not diagnostic, they can be a valuable tool in personalized health strategies, especially when paired with nutrition, lifestyle, and supplement guidance.

In this article, we highlight the top five companies in 2025 offering methylation gene testing. These companies stand out for their scientific credibility, report quality, and ability to translate complex genetic data into meaningful, actionable insights for both healthcare providers and individuals.

LifeDNA

The LifeDNA Methylation Genes report focuses on the genes of the methylation cycle, encompassing 14 genes with roles in the methionine cycle, folate cycle as well as the transsulfuration. The report offers insights into various aspects of health and wellness.

Read the full walkthrough of our Methylation genes report

Genetic variants in these genes are prevalent, found in 30-50% of the population, indicating their common occurrence in human DNA.

Genes Covered in the LifeDNA Methylation Genes Report:

CBS: Converts homocysteine to cystathionine, aiding detoxification and glutathione production. Full analysis
MTHFR: Converts folate into a form needed to process homocysteine and support DNA methylation. Full analysis
COMT: Breaks down neurotransmitters like dopamine and epinephrine, influencing mood and stress. Full analysis
MTR: Uses vitamin B12 to convert homocysteine into methionine, essential for methylation. Full analysis
MTRR: Regenerates active B12, supporting continuous methionine production. Full analysis
MTHFD1: Regulates folate metabolism and helps produce DNA building blocks.
SHMT1: Links amino acid and folate metabolism by converting serine into glycine. Full analysis
VDR: Binds vitamin D and regulates genes involved in immunity and cell growth.
ACAT: Supports fat metabolism by converting acetyl-CoA into malonyl-CoA.
AHCY: Maintains methylation balance by recycling homocysteine and adenosine.
BHMT: Converts homocysteine to methionine using betaine, important for liver health.
MAO-A: Breaks down serotonin and norepinephrine, helping regulate neurotransmitter levels. Full analysis
NOS3: Produces nitric oxide to support vascular health and blood pressure regulation.
MAT1A: Helps create SAMe, a critical molecule for methylation, mood, and detoxification.

LifeDNA is the Best Option

LifeDNA stands out as one of the best methylation gene tests in 2025, if we may say so ourselves! We provide a balanced coverage of 30 SNPs in 14 key genes and a strong focus on usability. The report analyzes critical variants across genes like MTHFR, COMT, CBS, MTR, MTRR, and others that impact detoxification, neurotransmitter regulation, cardiovascular health, and nutrient metabolism. By focusing on clinically relevant SNPs without overwhelming users with unnecessary data, LifeDNA strikes a smart balance between depth and clarity.

What sets LifeDNA apart is our actionable and user-friendly reports. Instead of simply listing genetic variants, we explain what we mean in the context of your well-being and offer practical guidance on diet, lifestyle, and supplementation. For example, users may receive insights into whether they need methylated B-vitamins or additional support for homocysteine clearance, making the data truly useful in everyday wellness planning.

LifeDNA also integrates your methylation profile into a broader ecosystem of wellness reports, connecting genetic insights across cognition, sleep, detoxification, mood, fitness, nutrition, and more. Combined with flexible data input options (raw data uploads or testing kits) and strong privacy controls, LifeDNA offers comprehensive yet accessible tools for anyone looking to optimize health through personalized, science-based recommendations.

SelfDecode

Best for: Consumers and practitioners seeking science-backed, personalized health insights based on methylation genetics.

SelfDecode is a trusted name in consumer genomics. They are known for their comprehensive methylation gene panel paired with robust, AI-driven health analysis. The SelfDecode methylation test evaluates multiple variants across key genes involved in methylation pathways, such as MTHFR, MTRR, COMT, CBS, AHCY, and others. Instead of just listing your genotypes, SelfDecode provides detailed explanations of what each variant means, the potential health implications, and evidence-based recommendations tailored to your genetic profile.

Users gain insights into how their genetics may impact methylation-related functions, such as detoxification, neurotransmitter balance, cardiovascular health, and nutrient metabolism. The platform connects these genetic findings to over 250 personalized health reports, including mood, cognition, inflammation, and cardiovascular function, making it especially useful for holistic health optimization.

Read our full review of SelfDecode’s genetic offerings

SelfDecode also includes:

Actionable advice on diet, lifestyle, and supplements to support methylation pathways.
An option to upload existing raw data from services like 23andMe or AncestryDNA, or to purchase a DNA test kit directly from SelfDecode.
Data privacy features, with full control over how your genetic data is stored and used.
Access to professional-grade reports that are suitable for both personal use and clinical consultations.

For users seeking a comprehensive, science-based, and interpretable methylation gene test, SelfDecode remains one of the most well-rounded options in the space.

Gene Food

Best for: Individuals focused on nutrition, lifestyle, and personalized supplement strategies rooted in methylation genetics.

Gene Food offers genetic insights with practical nutrition guidance, making it especially popular among health-conscious individuals and integrative health practitioners. Their test analyzes approximately 15 well-established SNPs across critical genes involved in the methylation cycle, including MTHFR, MTR, MTRR, COMT, CBS, AHCY, and SHMT1.

Gene Food focuses on translating genetic data into personalized diet and supplement recommendations. The report connects your genotype to meaningful health traits, such as methylation efficiency, homocysteine clearance, detoxification, and neurotransmitter balance, and explains what it could mean for your dietary choices.

Read our full review of Gene Food’s genetic tests

Key features of Gene Food’s methylation analysis include:

Actionable nutrition guidance, including foods to prioritize or moderate based on your methylation profile (e.g., folate-rich foods).
Recommendations for targeted supplementation, such as methylated folate (5-MTHF), B12 (methylcobalamin), or betaine (TMG), depending on your genetic variants.
A clean and intuitive report format, ideal for consumers who want clarity without complexity.
The ability to use an existing 23andMe or AncestryDNA raw data file, or to order a kit through MGene Food’s partnership if you don’t already have one.

Similarly to LifeDNA, Gene Food integrates your methylation profile into their broader wellness ecosystem, which includes custom meal plans, lifestyle suggestions, and tailored insights for optimizing sleep, digestion, energy, and mood.

Genova Diagnostics

The Genova Methylation Panel is a comprehensive diagnostic tool designed to assess both the genetic and functional aspects of methylation. Unlike many tests that focus solely on genetics, this panel combines plasma biomarker analysis from a blood sample with optional genetic testing via buccal swab, offering a dual-layered view of how well the body’s methylation processes are functioning in real time. Results are typically available within 14 days and must be ordered by a licensed healthcare provider.

Functionally, the test measures key methylation-related metabolites such as S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), S-adenosylhomocysteine (SAH), homocysteine, cystathionine, glutathione, choline, and betaine. These biomarkers provide insight into methylation efficiency, oxidative stress, detoxification capacity, and transsulfuration balance. Genetically, the panel evaluates common variants in genes such as MTHFR, MTR, MTRR, COMT, CBS, AHCY, BHMT, SHMT1, GNMT, and MAT1A, all of which play critical roles in regulating methylation cycles and maintaining healthy homocysteine levels.

The report includes a summary section, detailed pathway diagrams, and individualized result interpretations. Healthcare providers can find the relevant information needed to develop targeted, evidence-based interventions.

Xcode Life

Best for: Individuals with existing raw DNA data (e.g., from 23andMe, AncestryDNA) looking for a convenient, cost-effective, and science-informed methylation gene report.

Xcode Life offers a specialized Methylation Genes Report that analyzes key single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in genes involved in the body’s methylation pathways. Xcode Life works by allowing users to upload raw DNA data from popular genetic testing platforms like 23andMe, AncestryDNA, or MyHeritage, making it ideal for those who already have their genotyping data.

The report covers 15+ genes integral to the methylation cycle, including:

MTHFR
COMT
MTR
MTRR
AHCY
CBS
BHMT
SHMT1
VDR, among others

These genes are associated with crucial physiological processes like homocysteine metabolism, neurotransmitter regulation, detoxification, cardiovascular function, and mood balance. Variants in these genes may affect how well your body performs methylation.

Takeaway

As awareness of personalized health continues to grow, methylation gene testing is emerging as a key tool for individuals and clinicians looking to optimize wellness through a deeper understanding of genetics. Whether it’s supporting detoxification, enhancing mood balance, improving cardiovascular health, or simply making smarter dietary and supplement choices, these tests offer valuable insights into how your body processes and regulates some of its most fundamental biological pathways.

The companies highlighted in this article represent some of the most trusted and innovative options available in 2025. From comprehensive panels with functional insights to affordable reports based on existing DNA data, there’s a solution for every level of need and interest. While methylation gene tests are not diagnostic, when interpreted within the right context and paired with professional guidance, they can be a powerful addition to your long-term health strategy.

Viome Review: Understanding Your Gut Microbiome

Catherine on July 14, 2025

Disclaimer: This article is for informational purposes only and is not intended to diagnose any conditions. LifeDNA does not provide diagnostic services for any conditions mentioned in this or any other article.

Viome is a health technology company that offers at-home testing services focused on analyzing the human microbiome and gene expression using metatranscriptomic sequencing. Founded in 2016 and based in the United States, Viome aims to provide personalized health insights by examining RNA activity in gut, oral, and blood samples. The company’s core approach involves assessing microbial function and host gene expression to generate individualized dietary, lifestyle, and supplement recommendations. While Viome’s methods are grounded in emerging research in systems biology and precision nutrition, the clinical utility of its recommendations remains an area of ongoing scientific evaluation.

What is Viome? The Science

Viome uses a systems biology-based approach that integrates metatranscriptomic RNA sequencing, human expertise, and artificial intelligence (AI) to interpret active microbial and host gene expression for personalized health insights. The company’s AI engine (nicknamed “Vi”) continuously learns from millions of molecular data points and continuously updated scientific knowledge, enabling precise health scoring and targeted recommendations across gut, oral, immune, metabolic, brain, and cellular domains.

Viome also underpins its platform with clinical research. More than 16,000 participants across over 20 chronic conditions (e.g., IBS, depression, type 2 diabetes) are part of the evidence-building efforts. By focusing on RNA-based functional activity Viome aims to launch advanced diagnostics and personalized interventions to support prevention, early detection, and longevity.

What Do Viome Tell You? The Tests

Full Body IntelligenceTM Test

Viome’s Full Body Intelligence Test is a comprehensive health assessment tool designed to evaluate microbiome and cellular activity using RNA sequencing and advanced computational analysis. The test generates over 50 health scores that reflect the impact of an individual’s current diet and lifestyle on various physiological systems, including gut, immune, brain, heart, metabolic, oral, and cellular health. By analyzing gene expression patterns and microbial activity, the platform provides personalized insights intended to guide nutrition and supplement strategies.

The test output includes a food list of over 400 items categorized into “Avoid,” “Minimize,” “Enjoy,” and “Superfoods,” aimed at promoting beneficial microbial functions, reducing inflammatory processes, and supporting key health areas such as digestion, nutrient absorption, blood sugar control, and oral balance. Additionally, Viome offers supplement recommendations, tailored to each individual, based on a combination of biomarker data, clinical evidence, and life stage. These recommendations may include specific vitamins, minerals, herbs, amino acids, enzymes, and food extracts, selected to support areas where health scores are not optimal. While the science behind personalized nutrition continues to evolve, Viome’s approach reflects ongoing efforts to integrate molecular data into individualized wellness planning.

Pricing

Full Body Intelligence™ Test: $399

Full Body Intelligence™ Essential Starter Bundle: $577

Full Body Intelligence™ with Precision Supplements & Probiotics + Prebiotics: $199/month

Gut IntelligenceTM Test

The Viome Gut Intelligence™Test is centered on metatranscriptomic analysis, a type of RNA sequencing that looks at the active functions of microorganisms in your gut, not just their presence. Using a stool sample, the test identifies microbial gene expression patterns and analyzes how your gut microbiome is interacting with your body. This provides insight into what your microbes are doing, such as producing inflammatory compounds, synthesizing vitamins, or breaking down dietary fibers.

The test delivers 20+ gut health scores, including:

Gut lining health (e.g., signs of potential permeability or “leaky gut”)
Microbial diversity (a marker of resilience and ecosystem balance)
Inflammatory activity (e.g., microbial pathways associated with endotoxins like LPS)
Protein fermentation (linked with ammonia and other toxic byproducts)
Gas production pathways (such as methane, hydrogen sulfide)
Butyrate production pathways (critical for colon health)
Digestive efficiency (fiber degradation, bile salt metabolism, etc.)

These scores help identify whether your gut is functioning optimally or contributing to symptoms like bloating, fatigue, brain fog, acne, irregular bowel movements, or metabolic issues.

Based on your gut activity profile, Viome provides a personalized food list of over 400 food items grouped into:

Superfoods – enhance beneficial pathways
Enjoy – generally supportive of your gut profile
Minimize – may contain compounds not ideal for your microbial activity
Avoid – may exacerbate inflammatory or unhelpful pathways

For example, you may be advised to avoid spinach due to oxalate-processing issues or include more artichokes to promote butyrate-producing bacteria.

In addition, Viome suggests a tailored combination of supplements that may include:

Prebiotics and Probiotics tailored to your deficiencies
Polyphenols for modulating microbial diversity
Digestive enzymes for enhancing breakdown of macronutrients
Vitamins and minerals based on gut-associated biosynthesis gaps
Herbal extracts that support gut integrity and reduce microbial imbalance

These recommendations are designed to help optimize your microbial ecosystem, reduce inflammation, and support better overall health, targeting the root causes of symptoms, not just the symptoms themselves.

Pricing

Gut Intelligence™Test: $279

Gut Intelligence™Essential Starter Bundle: $338

Gut Intelligence™Test with Probiotics + Prebiotics: $99/month

Oral Health Intelligence™ Test

Viome’s Oral Health Intelligence™ Test provides a detailed assessment of the oral microbiome using metatranscriptomic RNA analysis of a saliva sample, identifying not only which microbes are present but also their active functions. The test generates 16 precision scores that evaluate key oral health domains, such as microbial balance associated with cavities, gum inflammation, pathogen activity, and compounds contributing to bad breath (e.g., volatile sulfides and polyamines).

These insights aim to detect early microbial dysfunction that may manifest as bleeding gums, sensitivity, plaque buildup, bad breath, or dry mouth, enabling proactive oral care.

Following the analysis, users receive personalized guidance tailored to their oral biochemistry. This includes:

A food recommendations list (categorized into Avoid, Minimize, Enjoy, and Superfoods),
Targeted oral biotics (pro-, pre-, and postbiotics),
Personalized formulations of toothpaste, gel, and lozenges.

Each recommendation is designed to:

Reduce inflammation and support gum integrity,
Counteract cavity-promoting bacteria,
Minimize breath odor
Balance pH through microbial modulation

The combination of tailored dietary advice, supplemental oral products, and ongoing testing supports maintenance and improvement of oral microbiome health, recognized as influential not only for dental hygiene but also for broader systemic wellness.

Pricing

Oral Health Intelligence™ Test: $259

Oral Health Intelligence™ Test Complete Starter Bundle: $329

Oral Health Intelligence™ Plan: $109/month

How It Works

Viome’s approach begins with at-home sample collection (stool for gut, plus saliva and/or blood for other tests). The samples are sent to a CLIA-certified lab for metatranscriptomic RNA sequencing. The samples are analyzed for active microbial and human gene expression to reveal real-time biological function, not just microbial presence. Their proprietary bioinformatics and AI engine (“Vi”) processes millions of RNA data points to generate personalized health scores for domains like gut, oral, immune, and cellular health.

Based on these scores, Viome delivers tailored recommendations: a detailed food list of over 400 items categorized into Avoid, Minimize, Enjoy, and Superfoods. This includes a customized supplement and biotic (pre- and probiotics) plans. These suggestions are designed to target detected molecular imbalances, such as inflammation, microbial dysbiosis, or impaired nutrient absorption, using evidence-based dosages and ingredient selection. Users receive results within 2–3 weeks and are encouraged to retest every 4–6 months to monitor progress and optimize recommendations over time.

Is it Safe to Use Viome? Safety & Privacy

Viome implements multiple layers of physical, technical, and administrative safeguards to protect customer data. Connections to its website and apps are encrypted via SSL, and sensitive data is protected. Health and sample information is stored in secure cloud environments using encryption, de‑identification, pseudonymization, data segmentation, and access controls such as multi‑factor authentication and least‑privilege permissions. Personally identifiable information (PII) is separated from protected health information (PHI), ensuring that sample data is labeled only with assigned codes rather than direct identifiers.

Viome’s CLIA‑certified labs also claim to follow strict sample-handling protocols. Only a limited number of qualified personnel are granted access with each bound by confidentiality agreements. They perform periodic risk assessments of ePHI systems to maintain data integrity and monitor for potential vulnerabilities.

Importantly, Viome does not sell personal data, nor does it share identifiable information with employers or insurers. However, they share identifiable data with third parties (like healthcare providers) with explicit user consent. Moreover, Viome uses RNA sequencing rather than DNA, reducing the risks of personal identification via genetic databases. Cookies and tracking tools are subject to clear policies and compliant opt-in controls.

Drawbacks of RNA Sequencing

While metatranscriptomics can yield more functionally relevant insights, it comes with several drawbacks compared to DNA-based methods:

RNA is inherently unstable

RNA degrades quickly during sample collection, storage, and processing due to RNases, making it much more fragile than DNA.
Impact: Sample handling must be rapid and tightly controlled, or results may be biased or unusable.

Complex sample preparation and bias

RNA extraction and library preparation are more technically demanding. Information-poor ribosomal RNA (rRNA) comprises over 90% of total RNA, requiring depletion steps that may introduce bias.
Impact: Variability in depletion efficiency can skew the representation of transcripts and underrepresent certain taxa or functions.

3. Low microbial mRNA abundance

Microbial mRNA is only a small fraction of total RNA and is often overshadowed by host RNA or non-coding RNAs.
Impact: Requires deep sequencing and careful filtering to isolate meaningful microbial signals, making the sequencing more expensive and computationally intensive than that of DNA.

4. Snapshot of transient activity

mRNA levels reflect real-time gene expression, which can fluctuate rapidly in response to diet, stress, or other short-term factors.
Impact: It may be difficult to distinguish between meaningful, sustained microbial activity and transient responses, leading to challenges in interpretation.

5. Greater susceptibility to host contamination

In fecal or intestinal samples, host epithelial or immune cells contribute significantly to the RNA pool.
Impact: Contamination can obscure microbial signals unless host RNA is effectively removed, requiring additional processing and controls.

6. Interpretation complexity

Gene expression data must be contextualized with microbial taxonomy and genome annotation, which are limited for many non-model gut microbes.
Impact: Incomplete reference databases and annotation pipelines may hamper accurate identification of transcripts and their functional roles.

Alternative to Viome: LifeDNA

LifeDNA has emerged as a prominent option for genetic testing owing to a combination of unique offerings and a commitment to personalized wellness.

We offer a basic DNA raw data analysis package to kickstart your journey. Users with raw data from 23andMe, AncestryDNA, etc., can access close to 300 traits across interests such as Nutrition, Wellness, Vitamins and Supplements, Personality, Fitness, Sleep, Methylation Genes, Detoxification Genes, and Skincare. We also offer our own DNA-based Gut Microbiome report and will soon be launching a GLP-1 DNA Report. Read more details here.

If you do not already have raw DNA data, such as from 23andMe, LifeDNA provides that too. Start your personalized wellness journey with LifeDNA’s state-of-the-art DNA kits here.

Here is why many regard LifeDNA as the best option for genetic testing:

Holistic Approach to Wellness: Unlike many other platforms that focus strictly on health-related risks or ancestry, LifeDNA adopts a holistic approach. We analyze genetic data to offer personalized optimizations for nutrition (including a customized grocery list!), skin care, vitamins & supplements, wellness, personality & cognition, sleep, and fitness. This range lets users get a complete picture of their wellness needs based on their DNA.
Product Recommendations: We go beyond just providing insights. We offer specific product recommendations, skincare ingredients, or supplements tailored to an individual’s genetic profile. It makes our service actionable, allowing users to make immediate changes based on their results.
Data Security: At LifeDNA, we place a high emphasis on protecting user data. Our commitment to privacy ensures that users can trust the platform with their sensitive genetic information.
User-Friendly Reports: LifeDNA reports are easy to interpret. Our reports are designed to be accessible to the layperson without compromising on the depth and accuracy of the information.
Continual Updates: As genetic research evolves, so does LifeDNA’s platform. Users can expect their reports and insights to be updated with the latest scientific findings.
Dedicated Research and Development: At LifeDNA, we invest in research to continually refine our algorithms, ensuring that the insights provided are based on cutting-edge science.
Educational Resources: LifeDNA also provides ample resources for users to understand their genetic makeup better. This education-first approach demystifies the complex world of genetics, making it approachable and actionable for everyone.
Scientific rigor: To create an unmatched commitment to scientific rigor, LifeDNA partners with CLIA-certified, CAP-accredited, and HIPAA-compliant laboratories.

Can genes influence your response to probiotics

Catherine on July 7, 2025

Have you ever wondered how certain bacteria in food can actually be good for your health? The idea of probiotics isn’t new. It goes back more than a hundred years. In the late 1800s, Louis Pasteur showed that fermentation in wine and beer happens because of living microbes, not just chemical reactions. Building on this, scientist Élie Metchnikoff suggested that some bacteria in fermented foods could improve health and even help people live longer. This was the start of the idea behind probiotics.

A big breakthrough came in 1930 when Dr. Minoru Shirota isolated a type of Lactobacillus that could survive in the human gut. He used it to create Yakult, one of the first probiotic drinks sold commercially. This changed probiotics from just a natural curiosity into products made specifically to help people’s health. Since then, science has advanced a lot. With new DNA discoveries and genomic tools, researchers can study exactly how probiotics work in the body. Interestingly, probiotics don’t affect everyone in the same way. Individual biology may influence how well they work. This has led scientists to ask a new question, can our genes determine how our bodies respond to probiotics?

What is Probiotics?

The World Health Organization defines probiotics as “live microorganisms which, when given in the right amount, give a health benefit.” Probiotics are friendly bacteria that can support your health when consumed in the right amounts. They are most commonly found in fermented foods such as yogurt, kefir, sauerkraut, and kimchi, or in dietary supplements. These beneficial microbes can help maintain a balanced gut environment, support digestion, and even influence the immune system.

Types of Probiotics

Probiotic bacteria are classified into different genera and species, each with specific functions in the body. The most widely used and studied probiotics belong to two main genera:

Bifidobacteria: Bifidobacteria are commonly included in foods and dietary supplements. These bacteria help support the immune system, prevent the overgrowth of harmful bacteria in the gut, and also aid in breaking down lactose into simple sugars that the body can absorb more easily.

Lactobacillus: Lactobacillus bacteria, such as Lactobacillus acidophilus, produce lactase, the enzyme responsible for digesting lactose, and also generate lactic acid. Lactic acid helps control harmful bacterial populations, provides energy for muscles, and improves mineral absorption. Lactobacilli naturally reside in the mouth, small intestine, and vagina.

You might want to read: Can Lactobacillus Rhamnosus Improve Gut Health?

What are the Health Benefits of Probiotics?

Probiotics can provide a variety of health benefits, which can be grouped by their main effects:

Support for Digestive Health: Probiotics help digestion of foods and absorption of certain nutrients and medications, making them more accessible to the body. Some aid in breaking down and recycling bile, which is essential for fat digestion and nutrient absorption, and by interacting with gut-associated immune cells, probiotics help the body distinguish between harmful and harmless microbes.
Prevention and Support of Infections: Probiotics may reduce the risk or severity of infections in different body areas, including skin infections, oral cavities, vaginal and urinary tract infections and digestive tract.
Gastrointestinal Disease Support: An imbalanced gut microbiome can contribute to chronic gastrointestinal problems. Probiotics may help prevent or manage conditions such as functional digestive issues like constipation, bloating, and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).
Immune System Modulation: Probiotics interact with the immune system beyond the gut, helping regulate inflammation and promoting immune tolerance. This can contribute to balanced immune responses, potentially preventing overactive inflammation.
Influence on the Brain and Nervous System The gut microbiome communicates with the brain through the gut-brain axis. Probiotics may influence mood and mental well-being and cognitive functions such as attention and mental clarity.

Genomics and Personalized Responses to Probiotics

Research on probiotics highlights how advances in microbial genomics have reshaped our understanding of probiotics. In the past, probiotic research focused mostly on broad health benefits that were assumed to apply to everyone in the same way. Now, it has revealed that individual genetic differences in both the microbes and humans, as well as variations in gut microbiome composition, may affect how people respond to probiotics.

This shift means researchers are beginning to see them as part of a personalized approach to health, where genes may help predict which probiotic species are most effective for a given person. For example, genomics now may uncover how specific genetic pathways interact with microbial functions, influencing outcomes like immune support, digestion, or nutrient absorption. This directly supports the idea that your genes could influence how well probiotics work for you, pointing to a future where probiotic use may be personalized much like nutrition or medicine.

It also shares important insights into why probiotics may work differently for different people. It shows that the ability of probiotic bacteria to survive the harsh conditions of the gastrointestinal tract and stick to the intestinal lining depends on specific genes and molecular systems. For example, certain Lactobacillus species adjust their cell membranes, activate stress-response genes, and produce specialized surface proteins or pili to withstand acid, bile, and digestive enzymes. These mechanisms are essential for the bacteria to survive, colonize, and exert their beneficial effects in the gut.

These findings support the idea that individual responses to probiotics may vary, because just as the bacteria rely on their own genetic systems to function, the host’s own biology such as gut environment, immune factors, and human genetic variations, may influence how well these microbes survive, adhere, and benefit the body.

How Genetics Influences Probiotic Effects

Research shows that how well probiotics work can depend on both the bacteria’s and the person’s genetics. A study on 42 strains of Lactobacillus plantarum found that certain bacterial genes control how probiotics affect the immune system. These genes are involved in nutrient transport, communication between bacteria, and production of antimicrobial compounds. When these genes were removed, the bacteria could no longer stimulate immune cells to produce important cytokines like IL-10 and IL-12. This shows that specific bacterial genes are key to probiotic activity.

Human genetics also plays a role. In a study where healthy volunteers received Lactobacillus acidophilus, L. rhamnosus GG, or L. casei, researchers examined gene activity in the intestinal lining. They found that responses were more influenced by each person’s genes than by the type of probiotic. For instance, L. acidophilus affected immune and growth-related genes, L. rhamnosus influenced cell growth and wound-healing genes, and L. casei shifted the balance of immune responses. Probiotics can also directly regulate immune cells. A protein from L. rhamnosus GG called p40 reduced intestinal inflammation and protected the gut barrier in mice, while certain Bifidobacterium strains increased regulatory T cells, helping control immune reactions.

Overall, these studies show that both bacterial and human genes determine how probiotics work and what kind of probiotics are needed. This explains why probiotics may help one person more than another and points toward the future of personalized probiotics tailored to an individual’s genetic profile.

Where to Get Probiotics

Probiotics can be obtained from both natural foods and dietary supplements. Including them in your diet may help maintain a healthy balance of gut bacteria.

Fermented Foods: Many traditional foods naturally contain live beneficial bacteria.
Yogurt: One of the most common sources, especially if labeled with “live and active cultures.”
Kimchi: A spicy Korean fermented vegetable dish with beneficial microbes.
Tempeh: Fermented soybeans that provide probiotics as well as protein.
Sauerkraut: Fermented cabbage containing lactic acid producing bacteria.
Dietary Supplements: Probiotics are also available in capsule, tablet, powder, or liquid form. Supplements often contain specific strains of bacteria or yeast, sometimes in higher doses than food sources.
Fortified Foods: Some products, like certain juices, cereals, or snack bars, are fortified with probiotics. While convenient, it’s important to check if the label specifies live cultures and the amount of CFUs, as not all fortified foods provide effective doses. Including a mix of probiotic-rich foods and, if necessary, supplements can help support gut health and overall well-being.

Are There Side Effects of Probiotics?

Probiotics are generally considered safe for most healthy people, but they may cause side effects in some individuals, especially when first introduced. The most common mild effects include:

Digestive symptoms: Gas, bloating, or mild stomach discomfort may occur during the first few days of taking probiotics as your gut microbiome adjusts.
Changes in bowel movements: Some people experience looser stools or mild constipation initially.
Allergic reactions: Rarely, individuals may react to ingredients in probiotic foods or supplements, such as dairy, soy, or other additives.

People with weakened immune systems, severe illnesses, or those who have undergone recent surgery should consult a healthcare provider before using probiotics, as there is a small risk of infections or other complications in these cases. It’s also important to note that not all probiotics are the same. Different species and strains have different effects.

Precautions When Using Probiotics
While probiotics are generally safe for healthy individuals, some precautions can help ensure their safe and effective use:

Consult a healthcare provider: People with weakened immune systems, chronic illnesses, or those undergoing medical treatments or recent surgery, should speak with a doctor before taking probiotics.
Check product quality: Not all probiotic supplements are created equal. Look for products that clearly list the strains used and expiration dates. Reputable brands with third-party testing are preferred.
Start slowly: Introducing probiotics gradually may help your body adjust and reduce the likelihood of mild digestive discomfort.
Be aware of interactions: Probiotics may interact with certain medications, including immunosuppressants or antibiotics. Taking probiotics at different times than antibiotics may help maintain their effectiveness.
Monitor for unusual symptoms: Although rare, serious side effects like severe infections or allergic reactions can occur, especially in vulnerable populations. Seek medical attention if unusual or severe symptoms arise.

References

The Role of Serotonin Supplements in Mood and Brain Function

Catherine on July 6, 2025

Maybe you’ve been exercising, eating well, and doing “all the right things,” yet your mood, sleep, or energy still feel out of sync. It can be frustrating when a healthy routine doesn’t fully translate into feeling balanced. Many people look for simple ways to feel a little calmer, sleep a little deeper, and think a little clearer.

Serotonin, often called a “feel-good” chemical, is a brain messenger that helps steady your mood, guide your sleep-wake rhythm, and keep appetite and focus on track. That’s why serotonin supplements have gained attention, with the promise of helping restore balance and support mental well-being. You’ve probably seen supplements that promise to “boost” it, but do they really help, and are they right for everyone?

What Is Serotonin and Why Does It Matter?

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter. It is a chemical messenger that helps brain cells communicate and sends signals between nerve cells. Think of it as part of the body’s communication network that helps different systems stay in balance. Its influence goes far beyond just the brain, it plays an important role in regulating mood, guiding sleep cycles, controlling appetite, and even supporting healthy digestion. About 90% of the body’s serotonin is actually found in the gut, showing just how connected the brain and body really are.

What Are Serotonin Supplements?

When people hear about serotonin and how it affects mood, sleep, and stress, the first thought is often, “Can I just take a pill to boost my serotonin levels?” This is where serotonin supplements come into the picture. These products are often sold as natural mood boosters or sleep aids, but here’s an important detail, you can’t actually swallow serotonin itself and expect it to reach your brain. The body has a natural barrier that blocks serotonin from entering directly.

Instead, most supplements work by giving your body the raw materials it needs to make serotonin on its own. For example, some contain tryptophan, an amino acid your body uses as a starting point, or 5-HTP, which is one step closer in the process of turning into serotonin. Others include vitamins and minerals that help this process run smoothly. In short, these supplements don’t “add serotonin” to your brain—they support the body’s own ability to produce it.

How Do Serotonin Supplements Work in the Brain?

Supplements can provide the building blocks or cofactors needed for the body to make serotonin. For example, tryptophan and 5-HTP are amino acids that convert into serotonin with the help of enzymes and nutrients such as vitamin B6 and magnesium. By increasing serotonin production, these supplements may support better communication between brain cells, leading to improved mood regulation and cognitive function.

What Are the Benefits of Serotonin Supplements?

Serotonin boosting supplements may offer several potential benefits, including:

Mood Support: By increasing the brain’s ability to produce serotonin, these supplements may help reduce feelings of sadness, irritability, or anxiety. They are often used to promote emotional balance and a more positive outlook, especially in people with mild mood concerns.
Improved Sleep: Serotonin is needed to produce melatonin, the hormone that controls the sleep–wake cycle. By boosting serotonin levels, supplements may help improve sleep quality, making it easier to fall asleep, stay asleep, and wake up feeling more refreshed.
Appetite Regulation: Serotonin helps control, appetite, hunger and satiety signals in the brain. Supplements that support serotonin may help reduce unhealthy cravings, encourage balanced eating patterns, and support weight management efforts.
Stress Relief: Healthy serotonin levels can calm overactive stress pathways in the brain. Supplements may help ease tension, reduce the impact of daily stress, and promote a greater sense of relaxation and well-being.
Cognitive Support: Serotonin is linked not only to mood but also to cognitive function. Maintaining healthy serotonin levels may support memory, focus, learning ability, and overall mental clarity.

What Do Studies Say About Serotonin Supplements?

Studies on genetic and early environmental influences on the serotonin system suggest that both genetic and early environmental factors may influence how the serotonin system develops in the brain, which may affect a person’s mental health later in life. Certain genes play a central role here. Serotonin transporter gene 5-HTTLPR helps move serotonin between brain cells. Variations in this gene may change how well serotonin is recycled in the brain. Some people with certain genetic variants in 5-HTTLPR may experience stronger reactions to stress, which could increase their risk for mood issues. Another important gene is the serotonin 1A receptor gene (HTR1A), which acts like a docking station for serotonin. If its function is altered, serotonin signaling may not work as effectively, influencing mood and emotional balance.

Studies also highlight that genes do not work alone. Early environmental experiences, such as childhood stress or nurturing support, can interact with genetic variations. For instance, a person with a certain genetic variant of the5-HTTLPR might be more likely to develop anxiety or depression if they grew up in a stressful environment, but supportive surroundings could buffer this risk. This interaction between genes and environment shows that serotonin-related outcomes are shaped by both biology and life experience.

A recent study has indicated that differences in the serotonin receptor gene 5-HT2A may influence how people respond to psychedelic treatments. Researchers discovered that single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), which are small genetic changes, play a major role in shaping these responses. For example, 5-HT2A gene variants such as Ala230Th and His452Th were shown to either reduce or completely change how the brain reacts to substances like psilocin, LSD, 5-MeO-DMT, and mescaline. These findings help explain why not everyone experiences the same effects from psychedelics. Some individuals may feel stronger effects, while others may notice weaker or altered responses. The study supports the idea that genetics, particularly variations in the serotonin system, are important in determining how clinical treatments linked to serotonin work in different people. This connection is especially relevant to conditions like depression, anxiety, and cluster headaches, where serotonin-targeted therapies are often used.

What Are Natural Ways to Boost Serotonin Without Supplements?

In addition to supplements, lifestyle choices play a major role in supporting serotonin production. Some natural ways to boost serotonin include:

Eating Tryptophan-Rich Foods: Serotonin is made from tryptophan, an amino acid found in foods like turkey, eggs, cheese, salmon, bananas, nuts, and seeds. Including these in your diet provides the raw materials your body needs to produce serotonin naturally.
Getting Regular Sunlight Exposure: Sunlight helps trigger serotonin release in the brain. Spending time outdoors, especially in the morning, can boost mood, improve energy levels, and support better sleep by aligning your body’s natural rhythms.
Exercising Consistently: Physical activity, especially aerobic exercise like walking, cycling, or swimming, increases serotonin release. Exercise also improves blood flow to the brain, enhances mood, and reduces stress, making it a powerful natural serotonin booster.
Practicing Mindfulness and Relaxation: Activities such as meditation, deep breathing, or yoga can lower stress hormones that interfere with serotonin balance. Regular mindfulness practices promote calmness, reduce anxiety, and support overall mental well-being.
Maintaining Healthy Gut Health: Since most serotonin is produced in the gut, eating fiber-rich foods, probiotics, and prebiotics may support a healthy microbiome, which in turn helps regulate serotonin production.

What Precautions Should You Take with Serotonin Supplements?

While serotonin supplements can be helpful for some people, they are not risk-free. To use them safely, it’s important to keep the following precautions in mind:

Consult a Doctor: Before starting any serotonin-boosting supplement, it’s best to speak with a healthcare professional, especially if you are already taking medications such as antidepressants, anti-anxiety drugs, or mood stabilizers. A doctor can help you avoid dangerous interactions and determine if supplements are appropriate for your situation.
Start Small: Dosages for supplements like 5-HTP, tryptophan, or St. John’s Wort can vary widely. Beginning with a lower dose allows your body to adjust gradually and reduces the chance of side effects such as nausea, drowsiness, or headaches.
Not for Everyone: Certain groups should avoid serotonin supplements unless specifically guided by a healthcare provider. This includes pregnant or breastfeeding women, children, and people with conditions such as bipolar disorder or heart problems, since serotonin-altering substances may worsen symptoms or interact poorly with treatments.
Watch for Side Effects: Although often considered safe, serotonin supplements can sometimes cause digestive upset, restlessness, or changes in sleep. In rare cases, taking too much or combining them with certain medications can lead to serotonin syndrome, a serious condition marked by high blood pressure, confusion, rapid heartbeat, and muscle stiffness. Immediate medical care is required if these symptoms occur.

References

Deciding the right dose of fish oil based on your DNA?

Catherine on July 5, 2025

Fish oil is one of the most popular supplements worldwide. It is often taken for heart health, brain function, and even for reducing inflammation. But did you know that your genes might influence how well your body responds to it? Instead of a one-size-fits-all approach, science is showing that the “right dose” of fish oil may actually depend on your DNA.

Understanding this is important because it helps explain why some people see great results while others may not, highlighting the role of genetics in how our bodies use omega-3.

You may want to read: DHA Levels Based on DNA: Omega 3 deficiency

What Is Fish Oil?

Fish oil is a type of fat that comes from the tissues of oily fish such as salmon, sardines, mackerel, and anchovies. It is rich in omega-3 fatty acids, which are essential nutrients that the body cannot make on its own. This means you must get them from food or supplements.

The two main omega-3s in fish oil are:

EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid): Known for supporting heart health and reducing inflammation.
DHA (docosahexaenoic acid): Important for brain function, vision, and nervous system development.

Fish oil is most often taken as a dietary supplement in softgel capsules or liquid form. People use it to support heart, brain, eye, and joint health, as well as to help balance inflammation in the body. Unlike some plant sources of omega-3s (like flaxseed or chia), which contain ALA (alpha-linolenic acid) that must be converted into EPA and DHA, fish oil already provides omega-3s in their active form. This makes them easier for the body to use.

Why Do People Take Fish Oil?

Many people take fish oil supplements because they don’t eat enough fatty fish in their diet.

Supporting Heart and Blood Vessel Health: Omega-3s in fish oil, especially EPA and DHA, help keep your heart and blood vessels strong. They can lower triglyceride levels, support healthy blood pressure, and improve circulation. Omega-3s also reduce the risk of plaque buildup in arteries, which may lower the chance of heart attack or stroke. In short, they help maintain overall cardiovascular health.
Helping the Brain and Nervous System: DHA, one of the main omega-3s in fish oil, is an important building block of the brain and nervous system. It helps brain cells communicate effectively, which supports memory, focus, and mood. For children, DHA is essential for brain development, while for adults it may help protect against age-related cognitive decline.
Reducing Inflammation in the Body: Inflammation is the body’s natural defense, but too much of it can contribute to chronic conditions such as arthritis, heart disease, or autoimmune disorders. EPA in fish oil has strong anti-inflammatory effects. It helps produce compounds that calm the immune response and reduce swelling, which is why many people use fish oil for joint stiffness or inflammatory health issues.
Supporting Eye and Joint Health: Fish oil benefits both vision and joint function. DHA is a key structural component of the retina, the light-sensitive part of the eye, and helps maintain clear and healthy vision. Adequate omega-3 intake may lower the risk of eye problems such as macular degeneration and dry eye. For joints, omega-3s help reduce stiffness, tenderness, and pain by lowering inflammation, which can be especially helpful for people with arthritis.

Does Everyone Benefit from the Same Fish Oil Dose?

tudies on fish oil indicate that fish oil has not been linked to serious treatment-related problems, but its long-term use has raised some theoretical concerns. Research suggests that taking up to 3 grams per day of EPA and DHA is considered safe for general use. Interestingly, populations like the Greenland Inuits, who consume around 7 grams per day through their traditional diet of fish and sea mammals, show very low rates of heart disease and inflammation. However, they also appear to have a slightly higher risk of bleeding, which may be linked to their unusually high omega-3 intake combined with low omega-6 intake. For patients with rheumatoid arthritis, who already face higher cardiovascular risk, the overall benefits of fish oil, both anti-inflammatory and heart-protective, likely outweigh potential risks.

One concern is whether fish oil increases bleeding, especially in people taking blood-thinning medications. Studies in Western populations showthat fish oil supplements do not increase bleeding risk, even when combined with aspirin or warfarin. Another concern is whether highly unsaturated omega-3 fats cause lipid peroxidation, a process that could damage blood vessels. Current evidence shows no convincing proof that fish oil worsens this problem; in fact, its overall effect appears to lower cardiovascular risk.

These results suggest that fish oil is generally safe for long-term use when taken in recommended amounts. Concerns such as bleeding, oxidation, or contamination are either unproven or controlled by proper supplement manufacturing. Choosing a high-quality product is the best way to ensure safety while gaining the anti-inflammatory and cardiovascular benefits of omega-3 fatty acids.

Understanding How Genetics Can Affect Omega-3 Levels

Studies suggest that not everyone absorbs or processes omega-3s in the same way, and genetics may play a key role in thisdifference. Certain genes can influence how well your body converts, transports, and uses omega-3 fatty acids like EPA and DHA. For example, some people may naturally have lower levels because their genes make the conversion from plant-based omega-3s (ALA) to EPA and DHA less efficient. Others might process fish oil more effectively, leading to better results for heart, brain, and joint health.

Knowing how your DNA affects omega-3 metabolism can help you choose the right type and dose of supplement. For instance, if your genes limit your ability to convert plant-based omega-3s, you may benefit more from fish oil or algae-based supplements that already contain EPA and DHA. This genetic insight makes supplementation more personal and effective, ensuring your body gets the support it needs.

You may be interested to read: Understanding the Genetics of ALA to EPA Conversion

Is Fish Oil Better Than Other Omega-3 Supplements?

Fish oil is one of the most direct sources of EPA and DHA, the omega-3s most tied to heart and brain health. Algae-based supplements also provide EPA and DHA, usually with more DHA than EPA, making them a strong option for people who don’t eat fish. Plant oils like flaxseed, however, mainly supply ALA, which the body must convert into EPA and DHA — and that conversion is often inefficient.

Is Fish Oil Cure for All?

While fish oil and omega-3s are beneficial for your overall health, they may not be a cure-for-all. In some conditions, eating whole fish may provide benefits, but in general, taking fish oil capsules by mouth has not been shown to be effective for the following specific conditions:

Chest pain: Fish oil does not appear to reduce the risk of death or improve heart health in people with angina or chest pain.
Eczema: Fish oil does not treat or prevent eczema. However, children who eat fish at least once a week between ages 1 and 2 may have a lower risk of developing it.
Cognitive function: Supplements have not been shown to improve memory or thinking skills across different age groups.
Irregular heartbeat : Neither eating fatty fish nor taking omega-3 supplements reduces the risk. In fact, fish oil may increase the risk of irregular heartbeat in some individuals.
Helicobacter pylori infection: Fish oil does not help fight this infection when compared to standard treatment.
Kidney transplant: Fish oil does not improve survival or prevent rejection after transplant.
Multiple sclerosis (MS): Fish oil does not improve MS symptoms.
High blood pressure during pregnancy: Fish oil does not prevent this condition.
Pre-eclampsia: Supplements do not lower the risk of this pregnancy complication.

How Do You Decide the Right Fish Oil Dose for You?

To figure out what’s best for your body, here are a few key steps to consider:

Start with the general recommendation (250–500 mg/day EPA + DHA): Research suggests that most adults can maintain good heart and brain health with this range of omega-3s. It’s a safe starting point unless your doctor recommends otherwise.
Consider your diet: If you regularly eat fatty fish such as salmon, mackerel, or sardines, you may already be getting enough omega-3s through food and may not need as much supplementation.
Look into genetic testing: Some people have genetic variations that affect how well their body absorbs or uses omega-3s. Testing can give you insight into whether you might need more support from supplements.
Work with a healthcare professional: Your overall health, and especially conditions like high cholesterol, heart disease, or if you’re on blood thinners, can influence the right dosage. A doctor can help personalize your intake for safety and effectiveness.

Should You Rely Only on my DNA to Decide Fish Oil Dosage?

While your DNA provides useful insight into how your body may respond to omega-3s, it’s only one piece of the whole process for you to consider and use as an insight on how to maintain the benefits. Combining genetic insights with your blood work results, diet, and overall health history gives the most reliable approach. This way, you’re not just guessing, but tailoring your fish oil intake to what your body truly needs.

Who Should Be Careful About Fish Oil Intake

Those who are pregnant, breastfeeding, or giving fish oil to children should be especially cautious. Pregnant women are advised to avoid fish like swordfish, king mackerel, and tilefish due to high mercury levels, and limit other fish intake to about 12 ounces per week. Children, especially young ones, should not consume large amounts of fish oil or contaminated fish because of the potential for mercury exposure and other toxins.

The LifeDNA Vitamins & Supplements Report provides a comprehensive and personalized look at how your DNA influences your body’s needs for vitamins, minerals, and other key nutrients. This report helps you make smarter choices about diet and supplementation, whether your goal is to support heart health, boost mental clarity, enhance fitness, or maintain overall wellness. With these insights, you can move beyond generic advice and take a more tailored and personal approach to nutrition and lifestyle for long-term health benefits.

References

The Role of CAT Gene in Body Detox

Catherine on June 16, 2025

The CAT gene, which encodes the enzyme called catalase, is crucial in the body’s defense against oxidative stress. As part of the antioxidant enzyme system, catalase protects cells from damage by reactive oxygen species (ROS), particularly hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). Its activity is essential for maintaining redox balance, supporting cellular detoxification, and reducing the risk of chronic diseases associated with oxidative damage.

What is Detoxification?

Detoxification in the body refers to the natural, biological process through which the body neutralizes, transforms, and eliminates harmful substances. Harmful substances can be produced internally (like metabolic waste or reactive oxygen species) or introduced from the outside (like pollutants, alcohol, medications, and toxins).

Key Detox Organs

Liver: The primary detox organ, processes toxins via enzymatic reactions, converting fat-soluble toxins into water-soluble forms for excretion.
Kidneys: Filter blood and excrete waste products through urine.
Lungs: Expel volatile compounds and carbon dioxide.
Skin: Releases some waste through sweat.
Intestines: Eliminate solid waste and metabolized compounds through feces.

Why is Detoxification Important?

Prevents Toxic Build-Up
Without detoxification, harmful substances can accumulate and damage cells, organs, and DNA, leading to disease.
Reduces Oxidative Stress
By removing reactive molecules like free radicals and hydrogen peroxide, detoxification helps prevent cellular aging, inflammation, and chronic illness.
Supports Metabolic Health
Detoxification enzymes help regulate hormones, medications, and nutrient by-products, maintaining metabolic balance.
Protects Against Disease
Impaired detox pathways are linked to conditions like cancer, liver disease, neurodegenerative disorders, and autoimmune issues.

In essence, detoxification is a constant and critical process that keeps the body functioning efficiently and protects it from internal and environmental harm. While the term “detox” is often misused in marketing, in scientific terms, it refers to a complex and essential physiological function.

CAT Gene

The CAT gene, found on chromosome 11, produces the catalase enzyme. The catalase enzyme is a protein that is made up of four identical parts. Each part contains a heme group, which helps break down hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) into water (H₂O) and oxygen (O₂), a vital process that protects cells from damage.

2 H₂O₂ → 2 H₂O + O₂

This prevents hydrogen peroxide, a by-product of normal metabolism, from accumulating to toxic levels. In the absence of sufficient catalase activity, hydrogen peroxide can generate hydroxyl radicals (•OH). Hydroxyl radicals make for some of the most damaging free radicals in biological systems.

Detoxification and Oxidative Stress

Oxidative stress occurs when there is an imbalance between ROS production and the body’s ability to neutralize them. The CAT gene, by coding for catalase, is one of the first lines of defense in this system. Its role is especially critical in detoxifying hydrogen peroxide generated by mitochondrial respiration, peroxisomal β-oxidation of fatty acids, and certain xenobiotic (foreign chemical) metabolism reactions.

Catalase works in concert with other antioxidant enzymes such as:

Superoxide dismutase (SOD): Converts superoxide radicals to hydrogen peroxide
Glutathione peroxidase (GPX): Reduces hydrogen peroxide and organic hydroperoxides using glutathione

Together, these enzymes form a tightly regulated network that detoxifies ROS and protects against oxidative damage to DNA, proteins, and lipids.

Tissue Expression and Functional Relevance

Catalase is highly expressed in tissues with elevated oxidative metabolism. This includes the liver, kidneys, lungs, and red blood cells. In the liver, it plays a key role in neutralizing ROS generated during the detoxification of drugs and alcohol. In red blood cells, catalase prevents oxidative damage to hemoglobin and membrane structures.

Low catalase activity has been implicated in several conditions involving increased oxidative stress, such as:

Type 2 diabetes
Hypertension
Neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s)
Cancer
Aging-related dysfunction

Genetic Variation in the CAT Gene

Polymorphisms in the CAT gene may influence enzyme activity and certain disease susceptibility. One well-studied variant is rs1001179 (C/T in the promoter region), which affects the gene’s expression.

A 2022 paper studied the rs1001179 polymorphism of the CAT gene in chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) cells. Specifically, the T allele of rs1001179 was associated with higher CAT expression compared to the CC genotype. This is because the T allele makes the promoter region of the CAT gene more accessible to transcription factors, enhancing gene expression activity. Additionally, CLL cells with the T allele also show lower DNA methylation, which further increases CAT expression. Together, these findings suggest that rs1001179 affects CAT levels through both genetic and epigenetic mechanisms.

Another 2024 study confirmed that CLL patients with the TT genotype of rs1001179 have higher CAT expression and also experience a shorter time-to-first-treatment, indicating a more aggressive disease course in CLL.

Clinical and Therapeutic Implications

Understanding the role of the CAT gene in detoxification has implications in:

Personalized medicine: Individuals with lower CAT activity may benefit from antioxidant-rich diets or supplements
Drug metabolism and toxicity: Impaired catalase activity may influence susceptibility to drug-induced oxidative stress
Biomarker development: Catalase levels may serve as a marker for oxidative stress in clinical settings

Additionally, catalase mimetics and gene therapy approaches are being explored for diseases linked to excessive oxidative damage.

Conclusion

The CAT gene plays a vital role in the body’s detoxification system by enabling the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide into harmless by-products. Through its regulation of oxidative stress, it helps protect against cellular damage, inflammation, and chronic disease. Genetic differences in catalase expression and activity further shape an individual’s ability to detoxify reactive molecules, making CAT a gene of interest in the fields of preventive health, toxicology, and personalized medicine.

References

Genetic Tendency to Have Twins

Catherine on June 10, 2025

Many parents dream of having twins, and many of us wonder whether our genetics plays a role. Is the likelihood of giving birth to twins written in your DNA?

Over the past 40 years, twin births have increased by more than 30% globally. The more we understand about the hereditary likelihood of having twins, the better we can support families medically, socially, and emotionally.

What Are the Two Types of Twins?

There are two main types of twins, identical, called monozygotic, and fraternal, called dizygotic twins. Identical twins happen when a single egg is fertilized by a single sperm cell and then splits into two embryos during early development. These twins share the same genetic material and are always the same sex.

Fraternal twins, on the other hand, result from two separate eggs being fertilized by two different sperm cells in the same cycle. They are genetically just like regular siblings and may be the same or different sexes.

How Common Are Twins?

Twins are becoming more common than they used to be. Between 1980 and 2018, the number of twin births in the United States increased by about 72%. By 2018, around 33 sets of twins were born for every 1,000 births.

Naturally, about 1 in every 250 pregnancies results in twins. There are two main ways twins can be conceived: either from one fertilized egg that splits into two (identical twins), or from two separate eggs fertilized by two different sperm cells (fraternal twins). Identical twins are less common, occurring in only about 3 or 4 out of every 1,000 births. They are always the same sex and share exactly the same DNA, which is why they often look so alike.

Is Having Identical Twins Genetic?

Propensity to have identical twins is not usually influenced by genetics. The splitting of the fertilized egg appears to happen randomly, and research shows that most cases of identical twinning do not run in families. However, there have been rare reports of families with multiple cases of identical twins. Scientists suspect that genes involved in cell adhesion, the way cells stick together, might play a role in these unusual cases, but this has not been confirmed. Overall, anyone can have identical twins, and it’s not something that can be predicted or inherited.

However, a study has shown that taller women may be more likely to have fraternal twins, and this could be linked to a natural hormone in the body called insulin-like growth factor, or IGF. IGF is a protein that helps the body grow and develop. It plays a key role in childhood growth and continues to support cell and tissue repair throughout life.

Researchers looked at a group of women who had naturally conceived twins or triplets. On average, these women were about 3 centimeters taller than women in the general population. The study found that this height difference was not random, it was statistically significant, suggesting a real connection. Taller women often have more IGF, which may cause the ovaries to release more than one egg at a time. This process, known as hyperovulation, is important in the conception of fraternal twins, when two eggs are fertilized in the same cycle. In short, the study supports the idea that a woman’s height and the hormones linked to it could slightly raise the chances of having twins. While height alone doesn’t determine twin pregnancies, it may be one small part of the bigger picture.

Other studies have also shown that certain genes might be linked to the chance of having fraternal twins, but the results weren’t clear-cut. In 2010, researchers looked at people from different parts of the world and found that a region around geneFAM120B on chromosome 6 might play a role in twinning. However, differences between genetic regions suggested that more than one gene could be involved. Another study in 2016 found that genetic variants in FSHB and SMAD3, both related to hormone function—may also increase the chances of having twins. This supports the idea that twinning is likely influenced by many genes, especially those involved in hormones and ovulation.

A recent large-scale GWAS study shares insights into the genetic basis of spontaneous dizygotic twinning. Analyzing data from over 700,000 individuals across Australia, New Zealand, Europe, and the United States, researchers identified four new genetic loci—GNRH1, FSHR, ZFPM1, and IPO8, which are linked to an increased likelihood of DZ twinning. These are in addition to previously known loci, FSHB and SMAD3, associated with ovarian function and reproductive hormone response. Among the new genes, GNRH1 and FSHR have known roles in female reproduction, while ZFPM1 and IPO8 are newly implicated, with IPO8 functionally validated in zebrafish as essential for female fertility.

The findings show that the tendency to have DZ twins runs in families and varies between populations, with significant genetic correlations found between twinning and traits like body size and hormone levels. Other things like race/ethnicity, height, diet, and how many children a woman has had before, may also affect the chances.

Is Having Fraternal Twins Genetic?

Fraternal twins may run in families. If you have a close female relative, like a sister or mother, who had fraternal twins, you may be more likely to have them too. This is because fraternal twins result from a process called hyperovulation, where the ovaries release more than one egg during the same menstrual cycle.

Hyperovulation is influenced by both genetic and non-genetic factors. Certain genes located on chromosomes 1, 11, and 15 have been linked to an increased chance of hyperovulation. Hyperovulation is the release of two or more eggs from the ovaries during the same menstrual cycle. Normally, a woman releases one egg per cycle, but in hyperovulation, multiple eggs are released, which increases the chance of having fraternal (dizygotic) twins or other multiple births.

If you inherit these genetic traits, especially from your mother’s side, your body may be more likely to release multiple eggs at once, raising your chances of having twins.

What Other Factors Affect Fraternal Twin Pregnancies?

In addition to genetics, several other factors can raise the likelihood of fraternal twins:

Age: Women over 30, especially those in their late 30s, have higher rates of hyperovulation due to natural hormonal changes.
Previous twin pregnancy: If you’ve had fraternal twins before, you’re up to five times more likely to have them again.
Ancestry: Some populations—especially those of African descent—have higher rates of fraternal twins. In certain African communities, the rate can be as high as 1 in 20 births.
Body type and diet: Taller or heavier women are statistically more likely to have fraternal twins, possibly due to increased ovulation-related hormones.
Assisted reproductive technology (ART): Procedures like IVF often involve the transfer of multiple embryos, which increases the chances of fraternal (and occasionally identical) twins.

Can Genetic Testing Predict Twin Pregnancies?

Genetic testing cannot predict whether you will have twins. While some genes are associated with a higher chance of fraternal twins, there’s no commercial or medical test that can tell you definitively. However, if you are already pregnant with twins, genetic testing can help identify potential risks and guide medical care during pregnancy.

For example, genetic counselors can assess whether twins are likely to share a placenta, whether they are at risk for twin-related complications, and offer personalized guidance throughout the pregnancy.

References

A Closer Look at Color Blindness

Catherine on June 9, 2025

Have you ever met someone who can’t tell red from green or struggles to distinguish certain shades? This condition is called color blindness, and for many people, it’s something they’re born with. Color blindness doesn’t mean seeing the world in black and white. Most people with color blindness can still see colors, just not in the usual way.

The most common type is red-green color blindness, where someone has trouble telling the difference between those two colors. Less common types include blue-yellow color blindness and total color blindness, which is very rare. These conditions affect how the light-sensitive cells in the eyes work. But what causes it and is it mostly genetic?

You may want to read: Genetics of Color Blindness

What Is Color Blindness?

Color blindness happens when your eyes don’t detect colors properly. This is usually because some of your cone cells, special nerve cells, called photoreceptors, in your eyes are missing or don’t work well. Cone cells detect light and color. You normally have three types that respond to red, green, and blue light. When one or more types of cones don’t function as they should, your ability to see certain colors or shades becomes limited. Most people with color blindness can still see colors, just differently than others. Only very rare cases involve seeing only shades of gray.

You may want to read: Visual Acuity: Seeing Clearly Through Science and Genetics

Studies on Secondary Color Blindness

Not all cases of color blindness are inherited. Some people develop it later in life due to aging, eye injuries, certain diseases like diabetes or glaucoma, or as a side effect of medications. These are acquired forms of color blindness.

One study looked into how type II diabetes can affect color vision. It included 343 participants and examined 673 eyes using a test called the Farnsworth-Munsell 100 Hue Test. The findings share that about 43% of people with type II diabetes showed some form of impaired color vision , and the rates were nearly the same whether or not the person had diabetic retinopathy. Most of the color vision problems involved difficulty telling apart blue and yellow shades.

However, when researchers used a special analysis technique called the moment of inertia, they didn’t find any consistent patterns, such as red-green or blue-yellow defects. This suggests that color confusion in diabetic individuals may be more random and severe rather than following typical color blindness types.

The study identified several other factors that were linked to a higher chance of having color vision problems. One of the most significant was clinically significant macular edema , which tripled the risk. People with higher intraocular pressure , even if still within the normal range, were also more likely to experience color vision loss. Another unexpected factor was elevated heart rate, which showed a weaker but still meaningful connection. While there were slightly higher rates of impaired color vision among women and those with certain types of cataracts (like posterior subcapsular cataracts), these weren’t strong enough to remain significant when other variables were considered. Together, these findings highlight that color vision issues in diabetes aren’t just tied to obvious eye disease, like diabetic retinopathy.

Color vision changes might not seem like a big problem at first, but they can have a serious impact on daily tasks. People with impaired color vision may struggle with recognizing traffic lights, reading charts that use color coding, or picking out ripe fruits. These issues can also affect job performance in professions where color recognition is important.

The study suggests that individuals with diabetes, especially those with macular swelling or higher eye pressure might benefit from functional vision testing and counseling. Even though these color vision problems might go unnoticed in a regular eye exam, they represent a real and often overlooked challenge in living with diabetes.

Is There a Cure for Color Blindness?

While there’s no cure for genetic color blindness, there are ways to manage it and adapt:

Color identification tools – Apps and devices can help label or recognize colors more accurately.
Special glasses or lenses – Some people benefit from glasses designed to improve contrast and enhance color differences, especially for red-green color blindness. These don’t work for everyone, but they can help in certain situations.
Adaptation strategies – Many people simply learn to rely on labels, organization, or pattern cues rather than color alone.

References:

https://www.nei.nih.gov/learn-about-eye-health/eye-conditions-and-diseases/color-blindness/causes-color-vision-deficiency
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/11604-color-blindness
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5678337/

The Genetics of Dyslexia

Catherine on June 8, 2025

For people with dyslexia, everyday reading tasks may feel like decoding a foreign language. It’s frustrating, especially when one’s effort doesn’t seem to match results. But the root cause isn’t a lack of will, it’s in how the brain interprets written language. Genetics is helping explain why some brains are simply built to learn and process information differently.

Affecting up to 10% of the population, dyslexia challenges traditional notions of learning because it’s not caused by a lack of effort or intelligence. Understanding these roots may help improve diagnosis and intervention.

What is Dyslexia?

Dyslexia is a specific learning difficulty that primarily affects reading, spelling, and writing. Individuals with dyslexia often struggle with decoding words, recognizing written symbols, and processing phonological information or the sounds of language. These difficulties may appear despite normal intelligence and access to education.

While reading challenges are the most visible symptoms, dyslexia may also affect working memory, rapid naming, and processing speed. It’s a lifelong condition, but with the right strategies and support, people with dyslexia can thrive academically and professionally.

You may want to read: How Genetics Shape Spatial Attention: A Deep Dive into Cognitive Abilities

What Are The Symptoms of Dyslexia?

Dyslexia affects people differently, but the following are some common symptoms:

Difficulty reading aloud or reading slowly: A person with dyslexia may read word by word, often struggling to sound out longer or unfamiliar words. This happens because their brain takes more time to connect letters with sounds.
Trouble spelling even simple words: Spelling can be inconsistent. A person might spell the same word differently in the same paragraph. This is due to difficulty remembering how words are built phonetically or visually.
Problems matching letters to sounds: This is called phonological processing. People with dyslexia may not recognize that the letter b makes the b sound. This makes it hard to sound out words when reading or spelling.
Confusing similar-looking letters These are called mirror letters and are often flipped. Some letters like b and d, or p and q. It’s not a vision problem, it’s a brain processing issue where the brain misinterprets orientation.
Difficulty remembering sequences (like the alphabet or days of the week): Some people with dyslexia have trouble recalling things in order. This affects learning the alphabet, spelling rules, and even instructions that follow steps.
Struggling with writing or organizing thoughts on paper
Writing may appear messy or disorganized. A person might know what they want to say but struggle to put it in a clear order or find the right words to write down.
Trouble learning new languages
Learning a second language relies on similar skills as reading: decoding, listening, and remembering sounds. For someone with dyslexia, this may feel especially overwhelming.

You may want to read: Is Math ability Determined by Genetics?

What Causes Dyslexia?

The causes of dyslexia are multifactorial, meaning they stem from both genetic and environmental influences. While educational settings and early childhood experiences may shape how dyslexia manifests, research confirms that inherited factors play a major role in its development.

The Genetics Behind Dyslexia

Genetic factors linked to dyslexia don’t just influence reading ability, they help shape how the brain develops in the first place. Research shows that the genes that are associated with dyslexia can affect areas in the brain that are important for recognizing sounds and connecting them to written words, especially on the brain’s left side.

Brain scans of people with dyslexia often show differences in specific regions involved in reading, such as the temporoparietal and occipitotemporal areas. These differences are tied to genes that guide how brain cells move and settle into place during development.

Genes such as DCDC2 and KIAA0319 help guide neurons to their proper places in the brain. When this process is disrupted, the brain’s reading circuits may not develop well. Imaging studies show that people with dyslexia often have weaker connections in key language brain pathways like the arcuate fasciculus. This may slow down how quickly the brain combines what it hears with what it sees, which is critical for reading smoothly.

While reading instruction and intervention programs may help boost reading skills, they don’t completely reverse these brain differences. This shows that genetic wiring has a long-lasting effect on how the brain processes language and reading, even when external support is provided.

T Twin studies provide some of the strongest evidence that dyslexia has a genetic component. Researchers often compare monozygotic (identical) twins, who share 100% of their genes, with dizygotic (fraternal) twins, who share about 50%.

When one identical twin has dyslexia, the other is much more likely to have it too, more often than in fraternal twin pairs. This higher concordance rate among identical twins suggests that genes play a major role in the development of dyslexia. Heritability estimates from these studies range between 40% and 70%, meaning that genetics accounts for a significant portion of the risk. However, the fact that concordance is not 100% even in identical twins also shows that environmental factors, such as early language exposure, teaching quality, and home literacy, also influence whether and how dyslexia develops. Twin research has helped us understand that dyslexia is not caused by a single gene but a combination of genetic and environmental factors.

A recent genome-wide association study (GWAS) investigated the genetic basis of dyslexia by analyzing data from over 51,800 adults who reported being diagnosed with dyslexia and more than one million individuals without the condition. Participants answered a survey question asking whether they had ever been diagnosed with dyslexia, allowing researchers to compare genetic differences between those who answered “yes” and those who answered “no.” The sample included both men and women, with the average age being around 50 years.

The study identified 42 genetic regions strongly linked to dyslexia, all meeting strict standards for statistical significance. Another 64 regions showed potential links, suggesting they may also be involved but need further study. These results support the idea that dyslexia is a polygenic trait influenced by a wide range of genes, not just a single one.

To see whether these genetic effects differed by age or sex, researchers analyzed subgroups. The results were remarkably consistent. Genetic similarity (max 1.0) was 0.91 between males and females, and 0.97 between younger and older adults. This means the genetic influence on dyslexia appears stable across age and sex, although more of the younger adults reported having dyslexia. About 5.3% of people in their twenties said they were affected, compared to just 3.2% of those in their eighties. This may reflect increased awareness, improved screening, or changes in how dyslexia is diagnosed over time.

Can you Treat Dyslexia?

There is no known cure for dyslexia, but effective management strategies may improve outcomes:

Structured literacy programs that focus on phonics, decoding, and spelling are proven to help children and adults build reading skills.
Assistive technologies like text-to-speech software and audiobooks support reading and comprehension.
Individualized education plans ensure that students receive accommodations and tailored instruction.
Awareness and self-advocacy help individuals understand their learning style and seek the support they need.

References

https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/6005-dyslexia
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2597981/
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8773624/
https://biologyinsights.com/is-dyslexia-hereditary-unraveling-genetic-clues/

PON1 and Your Body’s Detox System

Catherine on June 6, 2025

Our bodies are constantly exposed to harmful substances in the environment, from pesticides to pollution. Fortunately, we have natural defense systems designed to protect us from these toxins. One of these defenders is a gene called PON1, which produces an enzyme that plays a key role in detoxifying specific chemicals.

An enzyme is a type of protein that speeds up chemical reactions in the body. Think of enzymes as tiny helpers that keep biological processes running efficiently. In the case of PON1, the enzyme helps break down toxic substances into safer forms that the body can eliminate. However, not everyone has the same versions or amounts of this enzyme. These differences may affect how well your body handles toxic exposures.

Understanding how the PON1 enzyme works and how much of it your body makes, may offer insight into your ability to detox harmful chemicals. Some people inherit a more efficient version of the PON1 gene, while others may produce a less active form. This helps explain why some individuals are more sensitive to environmental toxins.

You may want to read: The Role of Genetic Variations in Mercury Detoxification

What is PON1?

PON1 gene codes for Paraoxonase 1, is an enzyme made in the liver and found in the blood attached to the HDL molecule known as the “good” cholesterol.

High-density lipoprotein (HDL) exhibits cardio- and neuro-protective properties, which are thought to be promoted by PON1. Reduced levels of PON1 activity, characterized biochemically by elevated levels of homocysteine (Hcy)-thiolactone, oxidized lipids, and proteins modified by these metabolites, are associated with pathological abnormalities affecting the cardiovascular system (atherothrombosis) and the central nervous system (cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease).

In addition to its role in cardiovascular and nervous system diseases by protecting the body from damage caused by oxidized fats, PON1 has many other antioxidant and detoxifying properties and can use several different substrates via its different types of enzyme activities (lactonase, arylesterase, aryldialkylphosphatase/paraoxogenase). PON1 helps break down harmful chemicals, particularly organophosphates or OPs, a group of compounds commonly found in pesticides and nerve agents.

How PON1 Detoxifies Harmful Substances

PON1 works alongside another group of enzymes called cytochrome P450, and together they convert harmful compounds, especially organophosphates—into less toxic forms the body can remove. Some of the key environmental harmful substances PON1 helps neutralize include:

Paraoxon: A breakdown product of the pesticide parathion. It inhibits acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme essential for nerve function, leading to dangerous nerve overstimulation.
Chlorpyrifos oxon: A toxic metabolite of chlorpyrifos, a common insecticide, that also impairs nerve signaling.
Diazinon oxon: A harmful version of diazinon, another widely used pesticide. It disrupts normal nervous system function.
Sarin and soman: Highly toxic nerve agents used in chemical warfare. Both inhibit acetylcholinesterase, causing severe and often fatal effects.

PON1 is especially active in the liver and blood, which are the body’s primary detoxification centers. The enzyme’s ability to break down these substances plays a critical role in protecting the nervous system and reducing toxic buildup.

The Role of Genetics

A study from California examined how people’s genes affect their ability to handle certain pesticides and what that means for their health. Researchers focused on PON1, the gene that helps break down chemicals like chlorpyrifos and diazinon, both widely used in agriculture.

They found that people living near farms that were using these pesticides were more likely to develop Parkinson’s disease if they had a version of the PON1 gene version called PON1-55 MM (variant L55M, SNP rs854560 genotype TT). This version produces less enzyme, reducing the body’s ability to detox these chemicals. The risk was even higher for individuals under 60, suggesting that early-life exposure may play a bigger role. Interestingly, there was no strong link between this PON1 variantand another pesticide called parathion, possibly because the body metabolizes it using other enzymes or other PON1 enzyme activities not affected by this SNP.

This study shows that not everyone is equally protected from toxins. People with a less effective version of the PON1 gene may accumulate more harmful chemicals over time, increasing the risk of developing diseases like Parkinson’s.

It’s a reminder that our genes and environment interact. For some individuals, living near farms or working with pesticides could be much more dangerous due to differences in how their detox system functions.

In another study, researchers examined 27 individuals who could detoxify pesticide byproducts diazoxon, chlorpyrifos-oxon, and paraoxon well. These substances are normally broken down by the PON1 enzyme in the liver and blood. The study found wide variation in detox rates among individuals: Diazoxon: up to 5.7-fold difference, Chlorpyrifos-oxon: up to 16-fold difference, and Paraoxon: up to 56-fold difference. This means some people were significantly better at clearing these toxins, especially paraoxon, than others.

These differences could be at least partly be explained by the PON-1 genetics. People with the PON1-192RR genotype (SNP rs662 CC homozygotes of Q192R) were more effective at detoxifying paraoxon and had higher activity against chlorpyrifos-oxon, but this did not apply to diazoxon.

Detoxification of diazoxon seemed more dependent on environmental or likely unidentified genetic factors. Another key finding was that paraoxon was the hardest to detoxify. The liver broke down diazoxon and chlorpyrifos-oxon 55 and 65 times faster, respectively, compared to paraoxon. This slower detox rate helps explain why parathion, the pesticide that turns into paraoxon in the body, poses a greater health risk. Overall, the study highlights the complex relationship between genetics, enzyme activity, and environmental factors in determining how effectively the body removes harmful substances.

How PON1 Affects Health?

Among the many genetic differences found in the PON1 gene, two common PON-1 variants have gained particular attention for their potential impact on health: the previously mentioned L55M and Q192R. The L55M variant refers to a change in the amino acid at position 55 of the PON1 protein, which may influence how much of the enzyme is produced and circulates in the bloodstream. Meanwhile, the Q192R variant has a role inthe enzyme’s function, specifically how well it can break down harmful substances such as a natural substrate oxidized low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and certain pesticides.

Since both of the L55M and Q192R, as well as other PON1 variants affect how active the PON1 enzyme is, individuals with different combinations of these gene variants may have varying levels of protection against oxidative stress and related diseases.

You may want to read: The Science Behind High-Density Lipoprotein: Genetics and Exercise Insights

Studies also suggest that the different versions of the Q192R variant differ in their activity in neutralizing various harmful compounds. Because of this, people with different versions may have varying levels of protection against oxidative stress and the development of certain diseases. For example, a study done in Singaporean Chinese adults found that smokers with certain PON1 variants, specifically the Q192R (rs662-T) were more likely to develop coronary heart disease or CHD whereas the risk was higher for non-smokers with the PON-1 SNP rs3735590 . Therefore the PON1 gene variants associated with disease risk varied depending on smoking status. This suggests that the effect of PON1 on heart health is influenced by both genetics and environmental factors like smoking.

These findings point to a complex interaction between genes, lifestyle, and disease risk, an area that researchers still strive to understand.

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Drawbacks of RNA Sequencing

RNA is inherently unstable

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Types of Probiotics

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How Genetics Influences Probiotic Effects

Where to Get Probiotics

Are There Side Effects of Probiotics?

References

What Is Serotonin and Why Does It Matter?

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Key Detox Organs

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CAT Gene

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What Are the Two Types of Twins?

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What is Dyslexia?

What Are The Symptoms of Dyslexia?

What Causes Dyslexia?

The Genetics Behind Dyslexia

Can you Treat Dyslexia?

References

What is PON1?

How PON1 Detoxifies Harmful Substances

The Role of Genetics

How PON1 Affects Health?

References

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